cg63

In/in the/at imagination/nn of/in the/at nineteenth/od century/nn the/at Greek/jj tragedians/nns and/cc Shakespeare/np stand/vb side/nn by/in side/nn ,/, their/pp$ affinity/nn transcending/vbg all/abn the/at immense/jj contrarieties/nns of/in historical/jj circumstance/nn ,/, religious/jj belief/nn ,/, and/cc poetic/jj form/nn ./.


	We/ppss no/ql longer/rbr use/vb the/at particular/jj terms/nns of/in Lessing/np and/cc Victor/np Hugo/np ./.
But/cc we/ppss abide/vb by/in their/pp$ insight/nn ./.
The/at word/nn ``/`` tragedy/nn-nc ''/'' encloses/vbz for/in us/ppo in/in a/at single/ap span/nn both/abx the/at Greek/jj and/cc the/at Elizabethan/jj example/nn ./.
The/at sense/nn of/in relationship/nn overreaches/vbz the/at historical/jj truth/nn that/cs Shakespeare/np may/md have/hv known/vbn next/in to/in nothing/pn of/in the/at actual/jj works/nns of/in Aeschylus/np ,/, Sophocles/np ,/, and/cc Euripides/np ./.
It/pps transcends/vbz the/at glaring/vbg fact/nn that/cs the/at Elizabethans/nps mixed/vbd tragedy/nn and/cc comedy/nn whereas/cs the/at Greeks/nps kept/vbd the/at two/cd modes/nns severely/ql distinct/jj ./.
It/pps overcomes/vbz our/pp$ emphatic/jj awareness/nn of/in the/at vast/jj difference/nn in/in the/at shape/nn and/cc fabric/nn of/in the/at two/cd languages/nns and/cc styles/nns of/in dramatic/jj presentation/nn ./.
The/at intimations/nns of/in a/at related/vbn spirit/nn and/cc ordering/nn of/in human/jj values/nns are/ber stronger/jjr than/cs any/dti sense/nn of/in disparity/nn ./.
Comparable/jj visions/nns of/in life/nn are/ber at/in work/nn in/in Antigone/np and/cc Romeo/np-tl And/cc-tl Juliet/np-tl ./.
We/ppss see/vb at/in once/rb what/wdt Victor/np Hugo/np means/vbz when/wrb he/pps calls/vbz Macbeth/np a/at northern/jj scion/nn of/in the/at house/nn of/in Atreus/np ./.
Elsinore/np seems/vbz to/to lie/vb in/in a/at range/nn of/in Mycenae/np ,/, and/cc the/at fate/nn of/in Orestes/np resounds/vbz in/in that/dt of/in Hamlet/np ./.
The/at hounds/nns of/in hell/nn search/vb out/rp their/pp$ quarry/nn in/in Apollo's/np$ sanctuary/nn as/cs they/ppss do/do in/in the/at tent/nn of/in Richard/np-tl 3/cd-tl ./.
Oedipus/np and/cc Lear/np attain/vb similar/jj insights/nns by/in virtue/nn of/in similar/jj blindness/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* between/in Euripides/np and/cc Shakespeare/np that/cs the/at western/jj mind/nn turns/vbz away/rb from/in the/at ancient/jj tragic/jj sense/nn of/in life/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez after/in the/at late/jj seventeenth/od century/nn ./.
I/ppss say/vb the/at late/jj seventeenth/od century/nn because/cs Racine/np (/( whom/wpo Lessing/np did/dod not/* really/rb know/vb )/) stands/vbz on/in the/at far/jj side/nn of/in the/at chasm/nn ./.
The/at image/nn of/in man/nn which/wdt enters/vbz into/in force/nn with/in Aeschylus/np is/bez still/rb vital/jj in/in Phedre/np and/cc Athalie/np ./.


	It/pps is/bez the/at triumph/nn of/in rationalism/nn and/cc secular/jj metaphysics/nn which/wdt marks/vbz the/at point/nn of/in no/at return/nn ./.
Shakespeare/np is/bez closer/rbr to/in Sophocles/np than/cs he/pps is/bez to/in Pope/np and/cc Voltaire/np ./.
To/to say/vb this/dt is/bez to/to set/vb aside/rb the/at realness/nn of/in time/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez true/jj ,/, nevertheless/rb ./.
The/at modes/nns of/in the/at imagination/nn implicit/jj in/in Athenian/jj tragedy/nn continued/vbd to/to shape/vb the/at life/nn of/in the/at mind/nn until/in the/at age/nn of/in Descartes/np and/cc Newton/np ./.
It/pps is/bez only/rb then/rb that/cs the/at ancient/jj habits/nns of/in feeling/vbg and/cc the/at classic/jj orderings/nns of/in material/nn and/cc psychological/jj experience/nn were/bed abandoned/vbn ./.
With/in the/at Discours/fw-nn-tl de/fw-in-tl la/fw-at-tl methode/fw-nn-tl and/cc the/at Principia/fw-nns-tl the/at things/nns undreamt/jj of/in in/in Horatio's/np$ philosophy/nn seem/vb to/to pass/vb from/in the/at world/nn ./.


	In/in Greek/jj tragedy/nn as/cs in/in Shakespeare/np ,/, mortal/jj actions/nns are/ber encompassed/vbn by/in forces/nns which/wdt transcend/vb man/nn ./.
The/at reality/nn of/in Orestes/np entails/vbz that/dt of/in the/at Furies/nps ;/. ;/.
the/at Weird/jj-tl Sisters/nns-tl wait/vb for/in the/at soul/nn of/in Macbeth/np ./.
We/ppss cannot/md* conceive/vb of/in Oedipus/np without/in a/at Sphinx/np ,/, nor/cc of/in Hamlet/np without/in a/at Ghost/nn-tl ./.
The/at shadows/nns cast/vbn by/in the/at personages/nns of/in Greek/jj and/cc Shakespearean/jj drama/nn lengthen/vb into/in a/at greater/jjr darkness/nn ./.
And/cc the/at entirety/nn of/in the/at natural/jj world/nn is/bez party/nn to/in the/at action/nn ./.
The/at thunderclaps/nns over/in the/at sacred/jj wood/nn at/in Colonus/np and/cc the/at storms/nns in/in King/nn-tl Lear/np-tl are/ber caused/vbn by/in more/ap than/cs weather/nn ./.
In/in tragedy/nn ,/, lightning/nn is/bez a/at messenger/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps can/md no/ql longer/rbr be/be so/rb once/cs Benjamin/np Franklin/np (/( the/at incarnation/nn of/in the/at new/jj rational/jj man/nn )/) has/hvz flown/vbn a/at kite/nn to/in it/ppo ./.
The/at tragic/jj stage/nn is/bez a/at platform/nn extending/vbg precariously/rb between/in heaven/nn and/cc hell/nn ./.
Those/dts who/wps walk/vb on/in it/pps may/md encounter/vb at/in any/dti turn/nn ministers/nns of/in grace/nn or/cc damnation/nn ./.
Oedipus/np-tl and/cc Lear/np-tl instruct/vb us/ppo how/wql little/ap of/in the/at world/nn belongs/vbz to/in man/nn ./.
Mortality/nn is/bez the/at pacing/nn of/in a/at brief/jj and/cc dangerous/jj watch/nn ,/, and/cc to/in all/abn sentinels/nns ,/, whether/cs at/in Elsinore/np or/cc on/in the/at battlements/nns at/in Mycenae/np ,/, the/at coming/nn of/in dawn/nn has/hvz its/pp$ breath/nn of/in miracle/nn ./.
It/pps banishes/vbz the/at night/nn wanderers/nns to/in fire/nn or/cc repose/nn ./.
But/cc at/in the/at touch/nn of/in Hume/np and/cc Voltaire/np the/at noble/jj or/cc hideous/jj visitations/nns which/wdt had/hvd haunted/vbn the/at mind/nn since/cs Agamemnon's/np$ blood/nn cried/vbd out/rp for/in vengeance/nn ,/, disappeared/vbd altogether/rb or/cc took/vbd tawdry/jj refuge/nn among/in the/at gaslights/nns of/in melodrama/nn ./.
Modern/jj roosters/nns have/hv lost/vbn the/at art/nn of/in crowing/vbg restless/jj spirits/nns back/rb to/in Purgatory/np ./.


	In/in Athens/np ,/, in/in Shakespeare's/np$ England/np ,/, and/cc at/in Versailles/np ,/, the/at hierarchies/nns of/in worldly/jj power/nn were/bed stable/jj and/cc manifest/jj ./.
The/at wheel/nn of/in social/jj life/nn spun/vbd around/in the/at royal/jj or/cc aristocratic/jj centre/nn ./.
From/in it/ppo ,/, spokes/nns of/in order/nn and/cc degree/nn led/vbd to/in the/at outward/jj rim/nn of/in the/at common/jj man/nn ./.
Tragedy/nn presumes/vbz such/abl a/at configuration/nn ./.
Its/pp$ sphere/nn is/bez that/dt of/in royal/jj courts/nns ,/, dynastic/jj quarrels/nns ,/, and/cc vaulting/vbg ambitions/nns ./.
The/at same/ap metaphors/nns of/in swift/jj ascent/nn and/cc calamitous/jj decline/nn apply/vb to/in Oedipus/np and/cc Macbeth/np because/cs they/ppss applied/vbd also/rb to/in Alcibiades/np and/cc Essex/np ./.
And/cc the/at fate/nn of/in such/jj men/nns has/hvz tragic/jj relevance/nn because/cs it/pps is/bez public/jj ./.
Agamemnon/np ,/, Creon/np ,/, and/cc Medea/np perform/vb their/pp$ tragic/jj actions/nns before/in the/at eyes/nns of/in the/at polis/fw-nn ./.
Similarly/rb the/at sufferings/nns of/in Hamlet/np ,/, Othello/np ,/, or/cc Phedre/np engage/vb the/at fortunes/nns of/in the/at state/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber enacted/vbn at/in the/at heart/nn of/in the/at body/nn politic/jj ./.
Hence/rb the/at natural/jj setting/nn of/in tragedy/nn is/bez the/at palace/nn gate/nn ,/, the/at public/jj square/nn ,/, or/cc the/at court/nn chamber/nn ./.
Greek/jj and/cc Elizabethan/jj life/nn and/cc ,/, to/in a/at certain/jj extent/nn ,/, the/at life/nn of/in Versailles/np shared/vbd this/dt character/nn of/in intense/jj ``/`` publicity/nn ''/'' ./.
Princes/nns and/cc factions/nns clashed/vbd in/in the/at open/jj street/nn and/cc died/vbd on/in the/at open/jj scaffold/nn ./.


	With/in the/at rise/nn to/in power/nn of/in the/at middle/jj class/nn the/at centre/nn of/in gravity/nn in/in human/jj affairs/nns shifted/vbd from/in the/at public/nn to/in the/at private/nn ./.
The/at art/nn of/in Defoe/np and/cc Richardson/np is/bez founded/vbn on/in an/at awareness/nn of/in this/dt great/jj change/nn ./.
Heretofore/rb an/at action/nn had/hvd possessed/vbn the/at breadth/nn of/in tragedy/nn only/rb if/cs it/pps involved/vbd high/jj personages/nns and/cc if/cs it/pps occurred/vbd in/in the/at public/jj view/nn ./.
Behind/in the/at tragic/jj hero/nn stands/vbz the/at chorus/nn ,/, the/at crowd/nn ,/, or/cc the/at observant/jj courtier/nn ./.
In/in the/at eighteenth/od century/nn there/ex emerges/vbz for/in the/at first/od time/nn the/at notion/nn of/in a/at private/jj tragedy/nn (/( or/cc nearly/rb for/in the/at first/od time/nn ,/, there/ex having/hvg been/ben a/at small/jj number/nn of/in Elizabethan/jj domestic/jj tragedies/nns such/jj as/cs the/at famous/jj Arden/np-tl Of/in-tl Feversham/np-tl )/) ./.
In/in La/fw-at-tl Nouvelle-Heloise/np-tl and/cc Werther/np-tl tragedy/nn is/bez made/vbn intimate/jj ./.
And/cc private/jj tragedy/nn became/vbd the/at chosen/vbn ground/nn not/* of/in drama/nn ,/, but/cc of/in the/at new/jj ,/, unfolding/vbg art/nn of/in the/at novel/nn ./.


	The/at novel/nn was/bedz not/* only/rb the/at presenter/nn of/in the/at new/jj ,/, secular/jj ,/, rationalistic/jj ,/, private/jj world/nn of/in the/at middle/jj class/nn ./.
It/pps served/vbd also/rb as/cs a/at literary/jj form/nn exactly/ql appropriate/jj to/in the/at fragmented/vbn audience/nn of/in modern/jj urban/jj culture/nn ./.
I/ppss have/hv said/vbn before/rb how/wql difficult/jj it/pps is/bez to/to make/vb any/dti precise/jj statements/nns with/in regard/nn to/in the/at character/nn of/in the/at Greek/jj and/cc Elizabethan/jj public/nn ./.
But/cc one/cd major/jj fact/nn seems/vbz undeniable/jj ./.
Until/in the/at advent/nn of/in rational/jj empiricism/nn the/at controlling/vbg habits/nns of/in the/at western/jj mind/nn were/bed symbolic/jj and/cc allegoric/jj ./.
Available/jj evidence/nn regarding/in the/at natural/jj world/nn ,/, the/at course/nn of/in history/nn ,/, and/cc the/at varieties/nns of/in human/jj action/nn were/bed translated/vbn into/in imaginative/jj designs/nns or/cc mythologies/nns ./.
Classic/jj mythology/nn and/cc Christianity/np are/ber such/jj architectures/nns of/in the/at imagination/nn ./.
They/ppss order/vb the/at manifold/jj levels/nns of/in reality/nn and/cc moral/jj value/nn along/in an/at axis/nn of/in being/beg which/wdt extends/vbz from/in brute/jj matter/nn to/in the/at immaculate/jj stars/nns ./.
There/ex had/hvd not/* yet/rb supervened/vbn between/in understanding/vbg and/cc expression/nn the/at new/jj languages/nns of/in mathematics/nn and/cc scientific/jj formulas/nns ./.
The/at poet/nn was/bedz by/in definition/nn a/at realist/nn ,/, his/pp$ imaginings/nns and/cc parables/nns being/beg natural/jj organizations/nns of/in reality/nn ./.
And/cc in/in these/dts organizations/nns certain/jj primal/jj notions/nns played/vbd a/at radiant/jj part/nn ,/, radiant/jj both/abx in/in the/at sense/nn of/in giving/vbg light/nn and/cc of/in being/beg a/at pole/nn toward/in which/wdt all/abn perspectives/nns converge/vb ./.
I/ppss mean/vb such/jj concepts/nns as/cs the/at presence/nn of/in the/at supernatural/nn in/in human/jj affairs/nns ,/, the/at sacraments/nns of/in grace/nn and/cc divine/jj retribution/nn ,/, the/at idea/nn of/in preordainment/nn (/( the/at oracle/nn over/in Oedipus/np ,/, the/at prophecy/nn of/in the/at witches/nns to/in Macbeth/np ,/, or/cc God's/np$ covenant/nn with/in His/pp$ people/nns in/in Athalie/np-tl )/) ./.
I/ppss refer/vb to/in the/at notion/nn that/cs the/at structure/nn of/in society/nn is/bez a/at microcosm/nn of/in the/at cosmic/jj design/nn and/cc that/cs history/nn conforms/vbz to/in patterns/nns of/in justice/nn and/cc chastisement/nn as/cs if/cs it/pps were/bed a/at morality/nn play/nn set/vbn in/in motion/nn by/in the/at gods/nns for/in our/pp$ instruction/nn ./.


	These/dts conceptions/nns and/cc the/at manner/nn in/in which/wdt they/ppss were/bed transposed/vbn into/in poetry/nn or/cc engendered/vbn by/in poetic/jj form/nn are/ber intrinsic/jj to/in western/jj life/nn from/in the/at time/nn of/in Aeschylus/np to/in that/dt of/in Shakespeare/np ./.
And/cc although/cs they/ppss were/bed ,/, as/cs I/ppss have/hv indicated/vbn ,/, under/in increasing/vbg strain/nn at/in the/at time/nn of/in Racine/np ,/, they/ppss are/ber still/rb alive/jj in/in his/pp$ theatre/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber the/at essential/jj force/nn behind/in the/at conventions/nns of/in tragedy/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber as/ql decisively/rb present/rb in/in the/at Oresteia/np-tl and/cc Oedipus/np-tl as/cs in/in Macbeth/np-tl ,/, King/nn-tl Lear/np-tl ,/, and/cc Phedre/np-tl ./.


	After/in the/at seventeenth/od century/nn the/at audience/nn ceased/vbd to/to be/be an/at organic/jj community/nn to/in which/wdt these/dts ideas/nns and/cc their/pp$ attendant/jj habits/nns of/in figurative/jj language/nn would/md be/be natural/jj or/cc immediately/rb familiar/jj ./.
Concepts/nns such/jj as/cs grace/nn ,/, damnation/nn ,/, purgation/nn ,/, blasphemy/nn ,/, or/cc the/at chain/nn of/in being/beg ,/, which/wdt are/ber everywhere/rb implicit/jj in/in classic/nn and/cc Shakespearean/jj tragedy/nn ,/, lose/vb their/pp$ vitality/nn ./.
They/ppss become/vb philosophic/jj abstractions/nns of/in a/at private/jj and/cc problematic/jj relevance/nn ,/, or/cc mere/jj catchwords/nns in/in religious/jj customs/nns which/wdt had/hvd in/in them/ppo a/at diminishing/vbg part/nn of/in active/jj belief/nn ./.
After/in Shakespeare/np the/at master/nn spirits/nns of/in western/jj consciousness/nn are/ber no/ql longer/rbr the/at blind/jj seers/nns ,/, the/at poets/nns ,/, or/cc Orpheus/np performing/vbg his/pp$ art/nn in/in the/at face/nn of/in hell/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber Descartes/np ,/, Newton/np ,/, and/cc Voltaire/np ./.
And/cc their/pp$ chroniclers/nns are/ber not/* the/at dramatic/jj poets/nns but/cc the/at prose/nn novelists/nns ./.


	The/at romantics/nns were/bed the/at immediate/jj inheritors/nns of/in this/dt tremendous/jj change/nn ./.
They/ppss were/bed not/* yet/rb prepared/vbn to/to accept/vb it/ppo as/cs irremediable/jj ./.
Rousseau's/np$ primitivism/nn ,/, the/at anti-Newtonian/jj mythology/nn of/in Blake/np ,/, Coleridge's/np$ organic/jj metaphysics/nn ,/, Victor/np Hugo's/np$ image/nn of/in the/at poets/nns as/cs the/at Magi/nps ,/, and/cc Shelley's/np$ ``/`` unacknowledged/jj legislators/nns ''/'' are/ber related/vbn elements/nns in/in the/at rear-guard/nn action/nn fought/vbn by/in the/at romantics/nns against/in the/at new/jj scientific/jj rationalism/nn ./.
From/in this/dt action/nn sprang/vbd the/at idea/nn of/in somehow/rb uniting/vbg Greek/jj and/cc Shakespearean/jj drama/nn into/in a/at new/jj total/jj form/nn ,/, capable/jj of/in restoring/vbg to/in life/nn the/at ancient/jj moral/jj and/cc poetic/jj responses/nns ./.
The/at dream/nn of/in achieving/vbg a/at synthesis/nn between/in the/at Sophoclean/jj and/cc the/at Shakespearean/jj genius/nn inspired/vbd the/at ambitions/nns of/in poets/nns and/cc composers/nns from/in the/at time/nn of/in Shelley/np and/cc Victor/np Hugo/np to/in that/dt of/in Bayreuth/np ./.
It/pps could/md not/* really/rb be/be fulfilled/vbn ./.
The/at conventions/nns into/in which/wdt the/at romantics/nns tried/vbd to/in breath/nn life/nn no/ql longer/rbr corresponded/vbd to/in the/at realities/nns of/in thought/nn and/cc feeling/nn ./.
But/cc the/at attempt/nn itself/ppl produced/vbd a/at number/nn of/in brilliant/jj works/nns ,/, and/cc these/dts form/vb a/at transition/nn from/in the/at early/jj romantic/jj period/nn to/in the/at new/jj age/nn of/in Ibsen/np and/cc Chekhov/np ./.




The/at wedding/nn of/in the/at Hellenic/jj to/in the/at northern/jj genius/nn was/bedz one/cd of/in the/at dominant/jj motifs/nns in/in Goethe's/np$ thought/nn ./.
His/pp$ Italian/jj journey/nn was/bedz a/at poet's/nn$ version/nn of/in those/dts perennial/jj thrusts/nns across/in the/at Alps/nps of/in the/at German/jj emperors/nns of/in the/at Middle/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl ./.
The/at dream/nn of/in a/at descent/nn into/in the/at gardens/nns of/in the/at south/nr always/rb drew/vbd German/jj ambitions/nns toward/in Rome/np and/cc Sicily/np ./.
Goethe/np asks/vbz in/in Wilhelm/np-tl Meister/np-tl whether/cs we/ppss know/vb the/at land/nn where/wrb the/at lemon/nn trees/nns flower/vb ,/, and/cc the/at light/nn of/in the/at Mediterranean/np glows/vbz through/in Torquato/np Tasso/np and/cc the/at Roman/jj-tl Elegies/nns-tl ./.
Goethe/np believed/vbd that/cs the/at Germanic/jj spirit/nn ,/, with/in its/pp$ grave/jj strength/nn but/cc flagrant/jj streaks/nns of/in brutality/nn and/cc intolerance/nn ,/, should/md be/be tempered/vbn with/in the/at old/jj sensuous/jj wisdom/nn and/cc humanism/nn of/in the/at Hellenic/jj ./.
On/in the/at narrower/jjr ground/nn of/in poetic/jj form/nn ,/, he/pps felt/vbd that/cs in/in the/at drama/nn of/in the/at future/nn the/at Greek/jj conception/nn of/in tragic/jj fate/nn should/md be/be joined/vbn to/in the/at Shakespearean/jj vision/nn of/in tragic/jj will/nn ./.
The/at wager/nn between/in God/np and/cc Satan/np brings/vbz on/rp the/at destiny/nn of/in Faust/np ,/, but/cc Faust/np assumes/vbz his/pp$ role/nn voluntarily/rb ./.


	The/at third/od Act/nn-tl of/in Faust/np-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, is/bez a/at formal/jj celebration/nn of/in the/at union/nn between/in the/at Germanic/jj and/cc the/at classic/jj ,/, between/in the/at spirit/nn of/in Euripides/np and/cc that/dt of/in romantic/jj drama/nn ./.
The/at motif/nn of/in Faust's/np$ love/nn for/in Helen/np-tl of/in-tl Troy/np-tl goes/vbz back/rb to/in the/at sources/nns of/in the/at Faustian/jj legend/nn ./.
It/pps tells/vbz us/ppo of/in the/at ancient/jj human/jj desire/nn to/to see/vb the/at highest/jjt wisdom/nn joined/vbn to/in the/at highest/jjt sensual/jj beauty/nn ./.
There/ex can/md be/be no/at greater/jjr magic/nn than/cs to/to wrest/vb from/in death/nn her/ppo in/in whom/wpo the/at flesh/nn was/bedz all/abn ,/, in/in whom/wpo beauty/nn was/bedz entirely/ql pure/jj because/cs it/pps was/bedz entirely/ql corruptible/jj ./.
It/pps is/bez thus/rb that/cs the/at brightness/nn of/in Helen/np passes/vbz through/in Marlowe's/np$ Faustus/np-tl ./.
Goethe/np used/vbd the/at fable/nn to/in more/ql elaborate/jj ends/nns ./.
Faust/np rescuing/vbg Helen/np from/in Menelaus'/np$ vengeance/nn is/bez the/at genius/nn of/in renaissance/nn Europe/np restoring/vbg to/in life/nn the/at classic/jj tradition/nn ./.
The/at necromantic/jj change/nn from/in the/at palace/nn at/in Sparta/np to/in Faust's/np$ Gothic/jj-tl castle/nn directs/vbz us/ppo to/in the/at aesthetic/jj meaning/nn of/in the/at myth/nn --/-- the/at translation/nn of/in antique/jj drama/nn into/in Shakespearean/jj and/cc romantic/jj guise/nn ./.


	This/dt translation/nn ,/, or/cc rather/rb the/at fusion/nn of/in the/at two/cd ideals/nns ,/, creates/vbz the/at Gesamtkunstwerke/fw-nn ,/, the/at ``/`` total/nn art/nn form/nn ''/'' ./.